The Chemistry of Carbon Compounds

 Introduction: Polymers are macromolecules having high molecular weights and are composed of smaller repeating units called monomers.  The term polymer is derived from the Greek root 'poly' means 'many' and 'meros' means 'parts'.  Monomers are small and simple molecules and have the capacity of forming two chemical bonds with two other monomers. The functionality of monomers depends upon the number of bonding sites in monomers.  DNA in a human body, proteins, muscles, nerve fibers, nails, hairs, etc. are all polymers. Carbohydrates have important functions in biological systems. The toys of our children are plastic polymers. Classification: There are various ways to classify polymers based on source, structure, mode of forming, molecular forces, etc. classification based on source: Polymers are classified into three subclasses as given below, Natural polymers: These polymers are obtained either from plants or animals and are named plant polymers and anim

 Reaction mechanism: An organic reaction mechanism is a complete, step-by-step account of how a reaction of organic compounds takes place.  The description of an organic reaction mechanism typically includes designation of the overall reaction type (viz. substitution, addition, elimination, reduction, oxidation, or rearrangement), the presence of any reactive intermediates, the nature of the reagent that initiates the reaction, the presence of any catalysis, and its stereochemistry. A common method for showing the progress of a reaction is a potential energy diagram, which plots the free energy of the system as a function of the completion of the reaction. The highest point along the reaction pathway called the transition state. The transition state indicates how easily the reaction can occur. One of the other ways to illustrate the steps involved in a reaction mechanism is a kinetic scheme, which shows all the individual reaction steps and their rate constants. The energy difference b

Sodium nitrate belongs to the family of compounds called salts, which are formed by uniting an acid (nitric in this instance) with a base (in this case sodium hydroxide). When sodium nitrate is combined with hydrochloric acid, an exchange reaction occurs, producing sodium chloride and nitric acid. The salt and nitric acid can be separated from each other and the two substances can be put to practical used. The Reaction: In the symbols of chemical terminology, the reaction may be written as, NaNO3 + HCl ---> NaCl + HNO3 This says that one molecule of sodium nitrate reacts with one molecule of hydrochloric acid to produce one molecule of sodium chloride and one molecule of nitric acid. Sodium Chloride: one of the reaction products, sodium chloride, is readily available in nature, so this reaction is not a particularly useful source for that substance. Purified sodium chloride is ordinary table salt and in its impure state( halite) is used for a variety of purposes, including( among ma

  Environmental chemistry  Environmental is the scientific study of the biochemical and chemical phenomena that occur in natural places.  It is a study that is more than air, water, soil, and CHEMICALS.  This field uses various techniques of genetics, biology, maths, hydrology, etc. Environmental chemists are responsible for finding how the unpolluted environment functions and finding ways of sustainable development that do not harm the environment. It also contains aspects of analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, organic chemistry, and inorganic chemistry as well as more diverse areas, such as epidemiology, public health, biochemistry, and toxicology. What is environmental chemistry used for? Environmental chemists study how chemicals enter and affect the air, water, and soil. These chemists often focus on issues related to environmental and human health. Many environmental and human health. Many environmental chemists collect water and soil samples from outdoor ecosystems and ana

Analytical chemistry: Analytical chemistry studies and uses instruments and methods used to separate, identify and quantify matter in practice separation identification for qualification main constituent the entire analysis or be combined with another method. Separations isolates analytes. Qualitative analysis identifies analytes, while quantitative analysis determine the numerical amount or concentration. Analytical chemistry involves the following methods: The process of separation isolates the required chemical species which is to be analysed from a mixture. The concentration of the analyte in a given mixture can be determined with the method of quantitative analysis. The identification of the analyte substance is achieved via the method of qualitative analysis. The methods used to determine the identity and the quantity of the analytical chemistry can be broadly divided into classical and instrumental methods. 1.Classical methods: There exist many classical methods of checking for

What is metal plating? The plating process is a manufacturing process in which a thin layer of metal coats a substrate. Metal plating provides many benefits to products made from metal and other materials. This mostly achieved through electroplating, which requires an electric current, or through electroless plating, which is in the autocatalytic chemical process.  Benefits of plating: Improved corrosion resistance Decorative appeal Increased solderability Enhanced hardness  Reduced friction Enhanced paint adhesion Altered conductivity Increased magnetism material deposition Types of metal plating: Copper plating Copper is a popular plating metal for applications that require high conductivity and cost-efficiency. Copper plating often serves as a strike coating pretreatment for subsequent metal platings. It is a popular plating metal for electronics components such as printed circuit boards. High plating efficiency and low material cost make copper one of the less expensive metals to p

Gold:  source: Internet Gold is a chemical element. The symbol of gold is Au and atomic number 79, making it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. In a pure form, it is a bright, slightly reddish yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal and a group 11 element. It is one of the least reactive chemical elements and soil under standard conditions. Gold often occurs in free elemental form, as grains, in rocks, in veins. It occurs in a solid solution series with the native element silver, naturally alloyed with other metals like copper and palladium, and also mineral inclusions such as within pyrite. Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as gold compounds, often with tellurium(gold tellurides). Gold is resistant to most acids, though it does dissolve in aqua regia ( a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid), which forms a soluble tetrachloroaurate anion. Gold is insoluble in nitric acid, which dissolves silve