The Chemistry of Carbon Compounds

Organic Nano chemistry:  Organic Nano chemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies organic reactions involving chemical synthesis of drugs, polymers and natural products which also includes the study of individual organic molecules in the laboratory. Nano materials: Nano materials are single unit sized , which can be described by the principle of 1 to100 nm of Nano scale or 1 to 10-9 meters. When scientists observed the different variations in materials he gave the Nano as a prefix to the Nano chemistry. Several chemical modifications on nanometer scale structure, approves effects of being size dependent. Nanoscale material: Nanoscale materials are also known as nanoscopic scale, which is lower bound to the mesoscopic scale for most solids. These usually refer to structures with a length scale applicable to nanotechnology, these materials where at least one relevant length scale, within the range of nanometers ranges from 1-100 nanometers.  These materials usual...

Structure and bonding in metals: Metals consist of giant structures of atoms arranged in a regular pattern. The electrons from the outer shell of the metal atoms are delocalised and are free to move through the whole structure. This sharing of Delocalised electrons results in a strong metallic bond. Metallic bond:  Metallic bonds formed when the charge is spread over a large distance as compared to the size of a single item in a solids. Mostly in the periodic table, left elements form metallic bonds, for example zinc and copper. Because metals are solid, their atoms are tightly packed in a regular arrangement. They are so close to each other so valence electrons can be moved away from their atoms. A sea of free, Delocalised electron is formed surrounding a lattice of positively charged metal ions.These ions are held by strong attractive forces to mobile electrons,in this way, metallic bonds are formed. Structure of metals: The three most common crystalline structures in metals are ...

Allotropy -  some elements occur in nature more than one form. The chemical properties of these different forms are the same but their physical properties are different. This property of the elements is called allotropy.  Allotropes of carbon : The element carbon is available abundantly in nature and occurs in free as well as in a combined state.  1. Symbol of carbon-C 2. Atomic number -6 3. Atomic mass -12 4. Electron configuration- 2,4 5. Valency -4 6. Non-metallic element Compounds obtained directly or indirectly from plants and animals are called organic compounds and compounds obtained from minerals are called inorgani uuc compounds. All the organic compounds contain carbon. Carbon is the main element even in cellular DNA and RNA that transfer hidden characteristics from one generation to the next. Occurrence of carbon - The name carbon is derived from the Latin word 'carbo' meaning coal. Carbon is found in nature in a free as well as compound state carbo...

 Reaction mechanism: An organic reaction mechanism is a complete, step-by-step account of how a reaction of organic compounds takes place.  The description of an organic reaction mechanism typically includes designation of the overall reaction type (viz. substitution, addition, elimination, reduction, oxidation, or rearrangement), the presence of any reactive intermediates, the nature of the reagent that initiates the reaction, the presence of any catalysis, and its stereochemistry. A common method for showing the progress of a reaction is a potential energy diagram, which plots the free energy of the system as a function of the completion of the reaction. The highest point along the reaction pathway called the transition state. The transition state indicates how easily the reaction can occur. One of the other ways to illustrate the steps involved in a reaction mechanism is a kinetic scheme, which shows all the individual reaction steps and their rate constants. The energ...

  Environmental chemistry  Environmental is the scientific study of the biochemical and chemical phenomena that occur in natural places.  It is a study that is more than air, water, soil, and CHEMICALS.  This field uses various techniques of genetics, biology, maths, hydrology, etc. Environmental chemists are responsible for finding how the unpolluted environment functions and finding ways of sustainable development that do not harm the environment. It also contains aspects of analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, organic chemistry, and inorganic chemistry as well as more diverse areas, such as epidemiology, public health, biochemistry, and toxicology. What is environmental chemistry used for? Environmental chemists study how chemicals enter and affect the air, water, and soil. These chemists often focus on issues related to environmental and human health. Many environmental and human health. Many environmental chemists collect water and soil samples from outdoor...

The term food industries covers a series of industrial activities directed at the processing preparation, conversion, preservation and packaging of foodstuffs. It is challenging to find an inclusive way from all aspects of food production and sale.The food industry today has become highly diversified, with manufacturing ranging from small,traditional that are highly labor intensive, to large and mechanized industrial processes.  Types of food industry: Major industries constituting the food processing industry are grains, sugar, beverages, dairy product and edible oil.The key sub-segments of the food processing industry in India are: Dairy, Fruits, and Vegetables, poultry and Meat processing.Food retail etc.  Role of Chemistry in food industry: Many of the chemicals found in a food occur naturally and include nutrients such as carbohydrates, protein, fat, fibre and a host of other elements and compounds. Chemical substances can play an important role in food production and pre...

Q.What is Organic chemistry? Ans: Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon containing compounds, which including hydrocarbons but also compounds with any number of element, including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, halogens, etc. About Carbon - In their outer shells, carbon atom have four electrons that can bond with other atoms. When carbon is bonded to to hydrogen, the carbon atom shares an electron with hydrogen and hydrogen likewise shares an electron with carbon. The compound containing carbon and hydrogen known as hydrocarbons. Tetravalency of carbon- The atomic number of carbon is 6 and its electronic configuration is 2,4 i.e it has 4 valence electrons. Thus carbon is always tetracovalent i.e it forms 4 covalent bonds with other atoms. Due to tetravalency of carbon it has a tetrahedron shape. Catenation - The self linking property of carbon is known as catenation. This is the main reason of existence of such larg...

Ammonium nitrate Introduction Definition      Ammonium nitrate is a crystalline white solid. Its made in large quantity industrially by the reaction of ammonia with concentrated nitric acid. The industrial production of ammonium nitrate entails the acid-base reaction of ammonia with nitric acid.  NH3 + HNO3  →  NH4NO3 Ammonia is used in its anhydrous form (a gas) and nitric acid is concentrated. After the solution is formed, typically at about 83% concentration, the excess water is evaporated off to leave an ammonium nitrate(AN) content of 95% to 99.9% concentration(AN melt), depending on grade. The AN melt is then made into “prills” or small beads in spray tower, or into granules by spraying and tumbling in a rotating drum. The prills or granules may be further dried, cooled, and then coated to prevent caking. These prills or granules are the typical AN products in commerce. Applications Ammonium nitrate is an important fertilizer with NPK rating 34-0-0...

Introduction NMR spectroscopy is the most powerful tool available for organic structure determination. It is used to study a wide variety of nuclei. The most common type of NMR: Proton and Carbon-13 1 H   NMR (PMR): To determine the type and number of carbon of H atoms and spatial arrangement of them in a molecule.   13 C  NMR Nuclear Magnetic Resonance(NMR) is a physical phenomenon in which nuclei in a magnetic field absorb and re-emit electromagnetic radiation. (CMR): To determine the type and number of carbon atoms and spatial arrangement of them in a molecule. The source of energy in NMR is radio waves which have long wavelengths (75-0.5m), and thus low energy and frequency (4-600MHz).  Principles of NMR The theory behind NMR comes from a spin of a nucleus and it generates a magnetic field. Without an external applied magnetic field, the nuclear spins are random in directions. But when an external magnetic field (H0), is present the nuclei align the...